Kevin Stevenson retires as AASB Chair Essay

This article is concerned with the accomplishments and achievements of Kevin Stevenson upon his retirement as the Chairman of the Australian Accounting Standards Board on 30th June 2014. During his tenure, Kevin Stevenson ensured that the long traditions of financial reporting were upheld both internationally and domestically and also provided counsel on issues concerning the FRC. Mr. Stevenson was an example of pioneer standard setters for generations down the line as he was among the founding members of the Accounting Standards Advisory Forum of the International Accounting Standards Board. Through his leadership, the AASB’s Research Centre was established as Stevenson served the Asian-Oceanian Standard Setters Group’s chair. His main focus was to work in the interest of the public, as stated by Lynn Wood, the FRC’s chair and trustee of the IFRS Foundation. In concurrence is Ian Mackintosh, the former Chair of the PSASB of Australia and Deputy Chair of IASB. Ac cording to Mackintosh, Stevenson largely contributed in the moves by Asia countries like Nepal and Korea to the IFRS. From the onset of the 1970s, Mr. Stevenson’ attention was driven towards setting ‘principal based’ standards and developing a Conceptual Framework to be used in financial reporting. He advocated for accounting regulations as evidenced by his association with the Accounting Research Foundation and later on watched over the growth of the AARF upon being appointed its Director. He was at the forefront of setting the international pace in the development of common accounting standards for both the public and the private sectors. Stevenson largely contributed to the formation of the Public Sector Accounting and also played a significant role in the establishment of the stable platform of International Financial Reporting Standards in 2005 for adoption in Australia and the entire Europe. Concepts, ideas and facts                      Teamwork and leadership are two important components that must be in alignment so as to provide effective high quality and efficient accounting services. A strategic human resource management model provides guidance to accounting teams and leaders to deliver high-quality services in a timely manner. Accounting operates within a performance measurement that tolerates no errors. Therefore, a state-of-the-art investigation requires scientific leadership working with major stakeholders as a team to provide the best accounting services to a fraud investigation. The new techniques of accounting are significant steps in the right direction and they require leaders with skills and business tools to apply concepts such as efficiency, cost benefit analysis, economies of scale and cost-effectiveness analysis that will measure continuous improvement on a regular basis. Effective leadership is needed to develop, design and implement a solution that would resolve the core competency of an organization. Strategic leadership in accounting provides quality and timely accounting services to a company. Such leadership like that o Stevenson brings together a fragmented system consisting of thousands of accountants working within a fragmented system of organizations. Effective teamwork and leadership in accounting shows the way through the development of new innovative fraud investigations for the future. Leaders in positions like that of Stevenson are encouraged to consider both the social and moral implications of their decisions with regard to how their decisions will affect the clients and shareholders of the company. It is the ethical responsibility of every employee to ensure their company does not illegally evade income taxes or allow questionable deductions. They should ensure that the company finds are allocated to the appropriate activities based on their importance and determine the important elements of the business. The accounting issue                      One major way of improving the confidence in financial reporting and accounting is to ensure that there is improvement in ethical standards, reporting mechanisms, strengthening of governance and adequacy of financial management. It is ethical to maintain the right to the truth while practicing accounting and financial reporting. Those who use financial statements have the right to accurate and truthful information when engaging in investment strategies. Clients have a legal right to receive competent and professional services from accountants who have a legal obligation to perform their responsibilities within the constraints of their skills. It is often argued that most accountants lack ethical ability to recognize and solve ethical dilemmas. This has necessitated the need to include ethics education as a major component of the accounting profession. The development of professional ethics and values should be initiated early in the accounting profe ssion and be emphasized throughout the career. Major issue of the article                      Stevenson clearly shows that it is the responsibility of management to serve the best interests of the company that they are providing auditing and accounting services for, investors and society as a whole. This can be done by providing truthful and accurate financial records. Ethical guidelines require that management should be honest, concise, accurate and complete while recording financial data to ensure ethics are held to the highest degree. It is also the duty of every employee to make wise, informed decisions about the future of a company. These accounting standards are useful in financial reporting and accounting as they are processes that are currently under a great deal of scrutiny. The two are important functions that organizations should take care of and ensure that they exhibit a high code of ethics. This is because clients and shareholders use accounting and financial reports in their decision making process. Legal and ethical issues ar e important elements of financial reporting and accounting as has been demonstrated by the positions assumed by Mr. Stevenson. These issues prompted Stevenson to establish financial reporting and accounting departments to set up specific sets of rules that govern the functioning of any organization. Relevant topics and theories                      The long traditions of financial reporting applied Positive Accounting theory by focusing on various aspects that are of major interest to accounting techniques and the issues that provided an informative background and the gives in depth details of the functionality of accounting in financial reporting. Positive Accounting gives a holistic description of what is currently unknown and proposes future considerations. Financial reporting and accounting apply to any economic entity relating to the company’s future business. The major ethical elements involved are objectivity, competence, independence and integrity. These ethical elements require that accountants and financial reporters are independent of the clients to whom they provide financial and accounting services. Ethical obligations help to determine the effectiveness of accounting and financial report and redress any imbalance that may alter information symmetry. The move by Nepal and K orea followed the ethical guidelines of financial reporting and never let the desire for a better living and acquiring more possession get in the way of their financial obligations. It is ethical for any employee of the accounting or financial department working in the public or private sector to remain loyal and impartial to ethical obligations when reviewing both individual and financial reports. It is usual for one to encounter various ethical issues and it is therefore important for one to remain vigilant to resist temptations to manipulate financial records that could violate ethical guidelines. Transparency and integrity are important ethical elements of normative accounting theory. Some companies may receive pressure from management to maintain a certain public image. This is because some public companies have the burden of succeeding at high levels and it becomes an ethical issue for them to maintain true reports of the company assets, profits and liabilities without succumb ing to the pressure from management. It is unethical for management to alter the financial records of its company and manipulate the numbers to create a false image of the success of the company. This only leads to prosperity in the short term since such fraud cases are discovered by the Securities and Exchange Commission ultimately spelling the downfall of the company. For these reasons, accounting theories assert that companies must remain ethically vigilant to avoid breaching the code of conduct. High standards of ethical behavior are expected for those people engaging in accounting and financial reporting. These standards provide rules and guidance to employees in the performance of their professional obligations. Poor decision making by management based on faulty or manipulated financial records aimed at deceiving the public about a company’s financial health has negative consequences on the business. It is therefore unethical for management to overlook such behavior. Gi ven how tempting it is for companies to manipulate their financial records in order to portray an image of economic health, management should provide the last defense possible to prevent accounting fraud. In comment letter 1, the Financial Reporting Committee of the IMA wrote to express its views on financial accounting standards on simplification of the income statement presentation through the elimination of the concept of extraordinary items. The FRC is in charge of several accounting books of different companies this in essence means that they are charged with the responsibility of making timely responses to statements, pronouncements, research legislations, proposals and pending legislations. Their main concern in this letter is the complex nature of financial statements in FASB comment letters. They support the simplication initiative adopted by the board as regards to making the financial statements easier to understand by the common folk CITATION Sch l 1033 (Schroder, 2014). Their support is on the elimination of elimination of extra ordinary items as in most times this criterion is not always met. Their proposal thus rids of the tedious work in the preparation of financial documents and whether this requirement is met by auditors in the process of doing their work. Their support is based on the fact that it reduces to a great extending the complex nature of the time for the allocation of the provision of income tax by reducing the occurrence of other income items occurring. They thus advocate for a thorough examination of the details of this suggested proposal CITATION Sch l 1033 (Schroder, 2014). In comment letter number 2, Marcum Accountants and Advisors write to the FASB regarding the proposed accounting standards through the simplification of the income statement by elimination of the concept of extraordinary items. Their letter is generally a response to several questions regarding the process of simplification of the income statement. They support the concept of elimination of extra ordinary items from the General Accounting principles. Their contention is based on the difficulty of application the extra ordinary items in accounting practice CITATION Giu14 l 1033 (Giugliano, 2014). They thus support the application for extra ordinary items in previous accounting periods. A sudden change of the rules would otherwise lead to confusion in the accounting practice. The ease of application of the proposed update makes it easy to make these recommended changes quite easy to adopt. They thus suggest the immediate adoption of the proposed update. They are in agreement with the decision by the board to stick to the principle of separate disclosure of infrequent transactions. Items must thus meet the definition of occurring infrequently in recurrent expenditure. They list the following examples as those that should not be classified as unusual or infrequently occurring: occupancy related expense, routine tax audit returns and losses and gains from reimbursements from insurance CITATION Giu14 l 1033 (Giugliano, 2014). They thus suggest the importance of offering guidance on the determination of unusual items. Proper definitions should thus be provided of the unusually occurring items. In comment letter 3, Ford Motor Company also writes in support of the simplication initiative by FASB. Their agreement is based on the objective of evaluation, identification and improvement of the generally accepted accounting principles CITATION Cal14 l 1033 (Callahan, 2014). This thus means that the reduction of the cost of complexity is possible with the simplification of the income statement. They are also in agreement with the board that such an update would not lead to data loss. The overall benefit would be to the end users of such financial statements. References Callahan, S. (2014). Ford Company. Giugliano, G. (2014). Marcum Accountants. Schroder, N. (2014). Institute of Management Accounting. Source document

EPC Plant Equipment Maintenance Process

Man-hours of Planned WOW Standby Man-hours ratio 0 No. Of Standby Man-hours / No. Of total Man-hours Mean work-order execution time (Days) Maintenance cost and cost ratio 0 Total maintenance cost per month / Total equipment book value 0 Differentiated values for man-hours and spare-parts 0 Divided in separated categories of equipment (rotary, fixed, facilities, etc. ) Measured monthly Level 1 cross-functional map of the current processWe at EPIC have been able to produce and deliver high quality, high-value chemicals to our customers through modern process technologies and hallucinated equipment and facilities. However, The ever increasing competition in the market requires us to reduce our plant maintenance costs and improve maintenance productivity by reducing non-value-adding activities and idle times, optimizing our manpower and machinery resource allocation, reducing spare-parts inventories, and minimizing the equipment idle-time and maintenance/procurement delays. These objecti ves may not be achieved unless we review, assess, and improve our maintenance planning and execution processes.To achieve an acceptable level of maintenance quality and productivity aimed at increasing production reliability and continuation, we have proposed to initiate a comprehensive analysis of maintenance processes, targeted at 50% reduction in maintenance costs and time, 30% reduction in spare parts inventory, and an average inter-overhaul period of at least 8 years. Implementing the above initiative will hopefully enable us to maintain our cost leadership and remain at the top of the domestic chemicals market. Review/analysis of the current state and its problems/issues As cited in the section n symptoms/problems and the root cause analysis chart, The most basic symptoms of the maintenance process which are manifested in the internal customer's dissatisfaction are delayed execution and poor quality of maintenance work.These are mainly attributed to unskilled maintenance worke rs, poor coordination and cooperation between production and maintenance workers, and long procurement procedures, which result in several losses: 0 Downtime from breakdown and changeover times 0 Speed losses (when equipment fails to operate at its optimum speed) 0 Idling and minor stoppages due to the abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of work on hates, etc. 0 Process defects due to scrap and quality defects to be repaired 0 Reduced yield in the period from machine start-up to stable production. But the ultimate cause of all these inefficiencies lies in the non-optimized function-oriented hierarchical organization within the maintenance and other company-wide departments. In fact, this last phenomenon is the cause of fragmented processes and unnecessary control and inspection, which in turn hinder employees' motivation and empowerment as well as cause very long cycles of spare-parts procurement. Initial improvements- Streamlining

12 Angry Men sociological analysis

12 Angry Men focuses on a Jurys deliberations in a capital murder case. A 12- man Jury is sent to begin deliberations in the first-degree murder trial of an 18-year- old Latino accused in the stabbing death of his father, where a guilty verdict means automatic death sentence. The case appears to be open-and-shut: The defendant has a weak alibi; a knife he claimed to have lost is found at the murder scene; and several witnesses either heard screaming, saw the killing or the boy fleeing the scene. Eleven of the Jurors immediately vote guilty; only Juror No. Mr. Davis) casts a not guilty vote. At first Mr. Davis bases his vote more so for the sake of discussion after all, the Jurors must believe beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty. As the deliberations unfold, the story quickly becomes a study of the Jurors complex personalities (ranging from wise, bright and empathetic to arrogant, prejudiced and merciless), preconceptions, backgrounds and interactions. That provides the backdrop to Mr. Davis attempts in convincing the other Jurors that a not guilty verdict might be appropriate. A huge feel of the film is gotten through the time period it took place in. Peoples views on race were made very publicly within the Jury. Many of them seemed to have personal vendettas against different races. They deemed the boys Hispanic race to be slum and nothing more than that. A universal problem that is shown in several ways throughout the film is personal prejudice getting in the way of Judgment. Juror number tens reason for saying the accused boy was guilty was because he felt people from slums should not be trusted and that they kill one and another for fun. His prejudice lead him to discriminate against the boy initially by voting guilty earlier in the film, before being convinced in voting not guilty. This was during the civil rights era and all of that. We all know blacks werent treated equally and this makes it apparent that it wasnt easy for any minority within the US. Theyd rather lock them up and throw away the key than give them a fair trial. Tensions run high the second the Jury went into the private room to deliberate. It was a very hot day outside and the fan wasnt working nor would the windows open. No man wanted to spend more time than what they thought would be efficient to determine the verdict. Some even spoke about their plans for right after, thinking it would be a sure bet theyd be out of there soon with the whole night ahead of them. They were wrong. From then on the film turned into an example straight out of a sociology textbook. Everyone didnt deviate from the norm of the group All except one, Juror #8. The rest of the Jury was outraged and deemed him a radical. They could not believe two things. One, that he voted not guilty, and second, hat he went against the group norm. He tried not one bit to conform. Rather, he stood up in grand fashion and presented his doubts to his fellow Jurors. Slowly but surely his grand scheme was working. He did not know for sure whether he was guilty or not guilty, but he had a reasonable doubt and thats all about what the justice system stands tor. Its so interesting when you bring a group o t 12 random people into a setting like a Jury and see what you come up with. All of these men, from different walks of life , they all brought something special to the table that was ital to their key decision. The sociological theory that tone of this film could easily fall under is the conflict perspective. At the very beginning, viewers can clearly see the tension is between the Jurors whom most have a personal prejudice against the boy for certain reason. Some Jurors simply expected that a boy from the slums would commit an act like that they were stereotyping that all people who come from slums are criminals. Even if a person is not personally prejudiced against and individual or group, stereotypes can have them make discriminatory actions such as vote guilty. The reason most of the Jurors stereotyped the actions of the accused boys is because of socialization. The way of transmission was most likely through media; crimes shown by television new or new papers are frequently from neighborhood of low economics standing. Deviance a topic I touched on earlier, is another sociological aspect that can be examined in this film. Deviance is a very relative term where depending on the group and situation, it varies. Juror 8 was the only that felt from the beginning the boy was not guilty. When the first vote most of the other Jurors by he fact he could think the boy was innocent and even were upset at him for thinking that. As the film progressed the Jurors began changing their votes, eventually the roles were reversed; Juror number 3 appear to be the one committing the deviant act since it is revealed his own reason for voting guilty is because of issues with his own son. One of the most important things I learned in observing the sociological aspects of this film is how easy norms can change. The norms of eleven out of the twelve men voted guilty, changed entirely to guilty as the film came to a chose.

Film An Inconvenient Truth Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Film An Inconvenient Truth - Movie Review Example From the vivid description of Al Gore’s concept of global warming in this documentary shows that human beings are responsible of the severe effects of global warming and being responsible is the only way to achieve eco-stability. This article seeks to analyze the causes of global warming and its impact on the ecosystem as depicted in the movie â€Å"An inconvenient truth.† In the movie, Al Gore starts by creating the awareness that global warming is a reality that is already being experienced in the world today. As the documentary starts, visual images of the sun taken from different earth positions are shown and it is evident that the illumination of this light has intensified with time (Guggenheim). Also, he presents the data of carbon dioxide changes in the atmosphere and the changes in the temperatures of the globe. On this ground, Gore seems to believe that global warming is an active topic that must be tackled in the society to salvage the natural environment from the scourge of this disaster. The data presented by Gore is similar to the information that was tabulated by Booker (21) that shows the manifestation of global warming on the earth today in his effort to assert that this is threatening disaster. The correlation between the evidence presented by the two environmental activists show that global warming is a matter of concern in the society today. Next, the movie draws a connection between the activities of human beings and the problem of global warming that is being experienced in the society today. At this point Gore makes a reflection of grade-school experience when his teacher ridiculed a student who asked about the effects of continental drift in the society (Guggenheim). By pointing out that the teacher was ignorant, he asserts that the society, and more so the politicians, have ignored the reality of environmental pollution. He feels that the result of global warming is the cumulative effect every person’s irresponsibili ty in pollution and not necessarily the effects of large industries. This is similar to the argument of Booker that the environment should be protected from the people and not the vice versa (308). The minor activities of the society such as driving, waste disposal, chemical use, farming and damage of natural vegetation are the major causes of global warming. The idea of Gore is that human activities are responsible for global warming and that any effort to curb this disaster must start from individual responsibility. After developing the connection between global warming and human activities, Gore points out the severe effects of this scourge to the society. He explains that the trends in global warming promises more diseases, dry vegetation and reduce economic activities in the future of the world. At this point an image of the ‘Crimes of the Hot’ describes vividly the adverse effects that greenhouse effect would have on the environment. The image shows an earth that is completely burnt and captures the attention of the viewers to visualize how the earth would turn out to be if the disaster is not mitigated (Guggenheim). By making such an exaggeration, Gore seems to make a realistic threat to incite the people against global warming in the society. In reality, scholars have predicted a doomed global warmed earth under the mercies of the population proactive environmental rehabilitation. By

Children with autism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Children with autism - Essay Example Peer influence plays a dominant role in the development of social relations with others in the community. Children with autism can benefit from friendship and good social relationships. Some of the functions of social relations include natural support function. In that participants can have a non-contingent source of support to enable them accomplish tasks. The other function is that social relations serve as informational and social learning. In this case, participants acquire information concerning the acceptable social convections through interactions and feedback from acquaintances. The third function is advocacy function where social relations cite statements to promote their self-worth. Lastly, social relations serve an affirming action where the participants gain a sense of competence. An analysis of social interaction of kindergarten children reveals that social exchanges prompt positive statements for children. The available developmental data indicates that interactions sta rt from social overtures to an equitable reciprocal basis. The initial intervention efforts aimed to evaluate the functional effects of an increased level of social overtures rarely expose to the positive approach behavior from peers. Chiesa & Serretti (2011) say that Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and other interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) are psychological treatments that can cure chronic pain. Other therapeutic interventions such as surgical techniques provide limited pain reduction in only a subset of patients. The author asserts that MBSR is a meditation initiative conceived in the late 70s in an effort to integrate Buddhist mindfulness meditation with modern clinical and psychological practice. The application of the program to treat different diseases shows good efficacy for mental and physical disorders. MBSR consists of three different techniques that include a body scan, sitting meditation, and

International Event Management in Year 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

International Event Management in Year 3 - Essay Example This paper intends to examine the environmental strategies in organizing an international event. Essentially, the organisers should consider the components of products used in the event. It is imperative to deliver products with improved environmental profile. This will reduce the environmental impact to the ecosystem components and its functions (Jones, 14). These products should delight the consumers without any tradeoffs in performance. Another strategy should reflect on improving the environmental profile of operations. It is vital for the overall environmental performance of supply chain and logistics of finished products to be improved such to attain the global environmental sustainability standards. For instance, suppliers should be encouraged to use non-pollutant packing materials. Additionally, local contractors should be encouraged to supply the products such that, the product miles or distance can be reduced (Bhe, 12). It is vital to consider and implement low –emission strategy intended to have transport and mobility means emit less toxic materials to the environment. The transport and logistics strategy should ensure local contractors should embrace carbon free transport means such as electric cars. This will reduce emission of gases and other materials to the environment. Further, more, the materials used during the events should uphold the principles of reuse and recycling (Yeoman, 13). It is noteworthy that, this strategy should encourage use of public transport to and from the event to reduce the number of private cars used consequently reduction of emission of smoke and gases to the environment. Water and energy efficiency is a fundamental strategy that will see effective utilisation of water and energy (Zineldin, 14). Inclusion sustainability is a management competence intended from incorporation of liable

I wrote it in Assignment Criteria Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

I wrote it in Assignment Criteria - Essay Example It is therefore in the light of this that this essay will be looking at the interrelationship between the relationship between politics and the media coupled with how the technological age is overtly or covertly facilitating the developments being witnessed today. In doing this, the essay will assess ongoing trends in the media industry with the view of using them as the basis to make deductive analysis leading to inferential conclusions about what that holds for global politics. The twenty first century has ushered humankind into a dispensation of unbridled technology driven developments that was hitherto highly unthinkable in our annals. Kellner (2002), cites the advent of the computer that ushered in the radical information technology dispensation, the usage of multimedia technologies and a host of others as the brainchild behind the evolution of the so-called rise in the â€Å"information society† which in the view of some observers is very synonymous with the rising trend in globalization (Castells, 1996). Still within this context, Best & Kellner, (2001), studied the trend in media development in the twenty first century then came out with compelling truisms that alludes to the fact that among other things, the new dispensation has created the platform to overcome major unconstructive differences, facilitation of dialogue that have also seen the renewed participation and integration of the traditional global south into the mainstream of the inte rnational political economic environment. It is also worth stating that thanks to the wind of liberalization blowing through the so-called â€Å"information society† the former crude structures that defined the establishment of social organizations and the conduct of political activities have steadily crumbled giving way to a refreshing move towards modernization. Evidently, today’s landscape can be described in all certainty as an innovative hybrid of

Hip Replacement Surgery Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hip Replacement Surgery - Research Paper Example However, pain refractory to pain medications and severe arthritis restricting the daily activities of life do require a hip replacement surgery (Kennon, 2008). Hip replacement may be total, with a ball and socket type of implant or partial, as in case of a hemiarthroplasty, depending upon the extent of damage present (Kennon, 2008). Once the decision is made, the patient is thoroughly examined locally as well as systemically, radiological and other investigations are obtained depending upon various patient related factors and if the surgeon deems fit, a preoperative physiotherapy program is initiated (Kennon, 2008). Total hip replacement is a major surgery. The cost of surgery depends upon the health care facility, the kind of implants used and the status of medical insurance of the patient (Kennon, 2008). Surgical as well as related expenses can add up to 20000 US Dollars or more (Kennon, 2008). Tendinitis Tendinitis is the inflammation of the tendon which is the part of the muscle that attaches to a joint. It is clinically evident as pain, tenderness, redness and swelling (Kennon, 2008). Tendinitis is caused due to trauma or overuse and misuse of that specific muscle or joint. As in the case of hip joint, ilio-psaos tendinitis can cause persistent chronic pain in the joint even after hip replacement surgery (Kennon, 2008). Treatment of tendinitis is aimed at reducing pain and inflammation by measures such as resting the affected site, ice packs, pain medication, steroids and ultimately surgery for tissues with extensive involvement (Kennon, 2008). What to expect after surgery In the immediate postoperative period, patient’s vital parameters are observed till effect of anesthetic wears off and patient is clinically stable (Kennon, 2008). Medications for pain and prevention of infection and blood clotting are continued (Kennon, 2008). Early ambulation and application of compression stockings is encouraged (Kennon, 2008). Gradually, physiotherapists work with the patient and help him resume walking and weight bearing on the operated hip with the aid of a walker for the first few days (Kennon, 2008). After that, specific joint exercises are taught at discharge along with certain modifications in posture, body movements and positioning of the joint (Kennon, 2008). Recovery after hip replacement is a continuous process incorporating regular checkups and visits to the physician and physiotherapist, occupational physiotherapy, exercises and care of the artificial joint (Kennon, 2008). Living with hip replacement   In most of the cases, hip replacement surgery successfully alleviates the symptoms and allows the patients to resume their daily activities. Mild to moderate level of stress can be applied to the prosthetic joint. However, high impact activities which are likely to cause dislocation and loosening of the prosthesis or cause fracture at the adjacent bone sites are not allowed (Kennon, 2008). It is of utmost importance that to m aintain the function of the joint and to maximize the life of the implant, the instructions regarding

Educational technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Educational technology - Essay Example indirect interaction makes the core interaction easier. He also distinguished interactivity from interaction as a form of interaction among many participants while interaction is limited to a set of individuals which typically comprises of two. As a participant of online course, I believe I can thrive with the interactivity online whereby I can interact with a community of online learners. In this platform (online), I believe that interaction will be maximized as noise (distraction) in physical interaction will be tremendously diminished. The usual distraction in physical interaction such as surfing during discussion or group work now become a part of learning process as an ancillary interaction as identified by Sutton. Students are now required to scour through various sources particularly internet to supplement the direct interaction provided by teachers. In a way, learning became efficient and to some extent even effective than face to face learning process. As a learner who is accustomed to the platform of internet, I believe I will thrive learning in an online

History of NFL Essay Example for Free

History of NFL Essay Jim Thorpe who was a player and a coach for the football team Canton Bulldogs, together with Leo Lyons who owns a football team called Rochester Jeffersons, were the mastermind behind the National Football League (Schweizer and McGovern, 2001, p. 60). The two teams these two guys were a member of were brainstorming one day. It was when the Bulldogs triumphed over the Jeffersons in a match in 1917 when Lyons brought up the idea of forming a league to Thorpe. During this time, Major League Baseball was very popular (Schweizer and McGovern, 2001, p. 60). Thorpe entertained the idea and liked it very much, and decided to pursue the goal immediately. However, Spanish flu became rampant during that time. A lot of football players died in the Great War. There was chaos everywhere, and forming a league was almost impossible. In fact, because of the social unrest, operations had to be suspended (Schweizer and McGovern, 2001, p. 60). The operations of the Bulldogs had to be on a halt. It had to end real soon. Schedules of games were no longer followed because it was deemed necessary to reduce the schedules only to the local groups. It was in 1917 when Lyons came up with the idea of forming a league. It was in 1918 when all the disorder became more noticeable (Schweizer and McGovern, 2001, p. 61). After one year, Lyons could still not get over the unpursued plans, so he went back to New York to encourage teams in Buffalo to a championship match. The Buffalo Prospects were not to back out from this challenge. They gladly accepted the offer and played the game against the Jeffersons for the championship. In this round, the Jeffersons lost to the Buffalo Prospects (Yost, 2006, p. 52). The Bulldogs, by this time, already belonged to Ohio League, which was then an unofficial league. The teams who were part of this league included Ironton Tanks, Shelby Blues, Massillon Tigers and the Bulldogs. Ralph Hay, who was managing the Bulldogs, plus the other Ohio teams, were all convinced by Thorpe to play following the format of a league. Everyone agreed to do this, so a brainstorming session was expected. Everyone contributed to the success of the goals. It was done against Hammond Pros of Chicago, Michigan, and the Detroit Heralds (Yost, 2006, p. 52). During this time, other teams were also holding a game. There were games all over the United States – New York City, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois. However, while New York City and Pennsylvania had teams, they were not a contributor to the founding of the National Football League as the blue laws of the latter kept the teams from joining the NFL. It was not until 1924 when the teams were finally liberated from the laws (Yost, 2006, p. 52). The New League The formalization of the league did not come immediately. Football enthusiasts had to wait. Formalization only took place at a Hupmobile dealership help in August 1920 in Ohio. It was first known as the APFC, or the American Professional Football Conference. What this league was composed of were Ohio League teams. However, not all teams that were part of the Ohio League joined. In fact, a lot of them decided not to participate (National Football League, 2009). After a month, the American Professional Football Conference was changed to the American Professional Football Association. Since a lot of teams played from the neighboring areas, more teams joined the league. Soon other teams joined the league, and among the teams include Detroit, Hammond, and two from the New York league namely Rochester and Buffalo. Finally, there were eleven teams that founded the league (National Football League, 2009). All teams became subject to an agreement over the declared champion at the end of the season, and player poaching. At this time, Thorpe was still a member of the Bulldogs and remained a player for the said team. He was in fact the president of the team. Out of all the teams that founded the team, only four of them finished the schedule in the year 1920. The first champions went undefeated for years, and that team was the Akron Pros. Akon Pros was the first champion of the league (National Football League, 2009). More teams became interested in the league. Most of the teams that were added to the list came from the teams in New York. The total number of teams reached 22 in as early as 1921, although this is not to say that membership was already going smooth and stable in the whole decade of the 1920s (National Football League, 2009). In fact, the league was still not considered a national game no matter how many teams have been interested in it, and no matter how many people were actually willing to support the and enjoy the league. It frustrated many people. The league decided to change its name again. It finally became the NFL, or the National Football League, on June 24, 1922 (National Football League, 2009). The Birth of the â€Å"NFL† At this point in time, two charter members were existing. They were the Chicago Bears, which was formerly known as Decatur Staleys, and the Arizona Cardinals, which used to carry the name Chicago Cardinals. A team which was lightly a part of the National Football League history was there all along, but was not given much significance since it did not join league plays. It was the Green Bay Packers, which was popular for not having changed locations. It was only in 1921 when the said team started playing in the league (National Football League, 2009). The Indianapolis Colts had a rich history, which can be seen through its multiple predecessors. The team is regarded as a separate franchise. It was founded later, only in 1953, and was named the Baltimore Colts. Other teams started to bid their goodbyes, including Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland and Buffalo among other original NFL teams. However, this did not stop the National Football League to develop. There were many replacement franchises to make up for the absence of the teams that no longer existed. New franchises were established (National Football League, 2009). Post-World War College football catered to many fans. It was actually a very big game that millions of people looked forward to. However, after the Second World War, people started to get bored with college football as their attention was diverted to a more challenging game: the professional football game (National Football League, 2009). Because professional football rivaled the football game college students were playing, rules started to be modified. Newer innovations were being released from time to time. It was during this time, too, when the T-formation was started. Football then was no longer just a game for recreation. It became a game that demanded for higher scores (National Football League , 2009). After many years, the National Footbal League was joined by three teams in 1950. teams came from the All-America Football Conference which was no longer functioning at that time. It expanded to 13 clubs. Because of this fast expansion and rising popularity of the sport, professional football has etched its space in the world as a major sport.

Examining The Processes Of Data Backup Information Technology Essay

Examining The Processes Of Data Backup Information Technology Essay There are many problems that happen to the computers which will cause damage for it. For example, it cause lose the data and necessary information and this problems may effect to the organization whether losing the data or information and this things will cause stop working and then losing the money. Therefore, to protect your data from the hackers or nature disaster you should take a backup. The backup is making copying a collection of data, the object, from primary to secondary storage for the purpose of recovery in the event of failure. In my project discussed some point which may prevent data from losing or at least reduce the risk which may happen. For example, I indicated to the definition of the backup this will help the users to understand the meaning of the backup. Also, I talk about some reasons about needs of doing backup and some features of backup. Moreover, I mention to the importance of backup software and why we need backup software. In addition I mentioned importance of backup data and why we need backup data. Finally, I talk about backup Documentation. What is the backup? Backup is the process of copying a collection of data, the object, from primary to secondary storage for the purpose of recovery in the event of failure. Its continuation is Recovery, the process invoke on failure or other requirement to return the contents of the collection to primary storage space. To be useful for recovery, the source data images needs to be in a consistent condition throughout the backup. The copy be supposed to provide a non-volatile point of retrieval. In addition a data object may have many copies or recovery points. Failure cause may be logical, physical, accidental or intentional resultant in loss or inaccessibility of the original data. The primary storage is characteristically disk. The secondary storage is characteristically magnetic tape, often called removable media because it is easy to transport to an exchange location. Today, disks/tape combinations and remote disks may serve as secondary storage in addition to other media forms. An exchange location or site is required in the event of primary site destruction or that the site becomes unavailable. In most cases, the legal or guaranty test of backup authority requires a combination of the ability to recover from the media and physical storage of the media at a specified least amount distance from the primary site. In information technology, a backup or the process of backing up refers to making copies of data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. The verb is back up in two words, whereas the noun is backup (often used like an adjective in composite nouns). Backups are useful primarily for two purposes. The first is to restore a state following a disaster (called disaster recovery). The second is to restore small numbers of files after they have been accidentally deleted or corrupted. Data loss is also very common. 68% of internet users have suffered from serious data loss. Why using backup? The Backup usefulness in Windows ® XP Professional helps you protect your files and information if your computer fails. For example, you can use Backup to copy the data on your hard drive it on another a disk, hard drive, a DVD, a CD, or another computer. If your hard drive is erased or damaged, you can easily restore the data from the archived copy. Using Backup when Corruption Will data. It is definitely critical that users understand that corruption happens, hard drives will fail, motherboards will short out, and mistakes will erase data. Good conservancy and technical skills may increase the time between errors. Also, using backup to protect your files you can create a backup by using Vistas Backup Status and Configuration tool. A backup set is a set of copies of the files that is stored in a different location from the original files. That location can be a different partition on your computers internal hard disk, an external hard disk, a remote share on a different computer, and even writable media such as CD-R and DVD-R. Type of Backup Full Backup The first backup in a series is full backup (the incremental and the differential backups must start with a full backup). A full backup allows you to backup the all hard drive: folders, applications, and files (or just a select part of your hard drive). A full backup reset the archive bits. Everybody who values data stored on a computer should do a full backup weekly. Incremental Backup This incremental Used to backup only files that have changed as the last backup, whether it was a full backup or an incremental backup. The archive small piece is reset with an incremental backup. Incremental backups are fast and need less data storage space. Restoring data takes longer since you must restore the last full backup and each incremental backup perform since the last full backup. Incremental backups are ideal for those who need frequent backups up till now have minimal backup storage space. Differential Backup Differential backup used to backup only files that changed since the last full backup, but a differential backup does not reset the archive. Differential backups get longer and require more storage space, but restore time is faster because you only need to restore the last full backup and the most recent differential backup. Differential backups are good-looking for those with more storage space and small endurance for lengthy restores. Why Data Backup Software? In the Information age, we cant go a day without needing to use a computer. As a result, a lot of important information is store on our machinery. Computers are target to failure as much as any other type of electronics. And when they do, the results can be catastrophic. Whether youre a small business or a personality, prop up your files is an important exercise. The smallest thing could fetch everything wreck to the earth, so you have to be ready in case something happens. If your system stays secure, you can take breathe a sigh of aid knowing you would be ready in the event of a crash. The data each person stores on their computer is different, so you need to choose the data backup software that meets your specific needs. This practicability can be a difficult and confusing. We are here to help make your attempt a little easier. What to Look for in Data Backup Software You need backup software that is dependable and simple on the way to use or you wont use it. Underneath is the criterion TopTenREVIEWS used to appraise data backup software: Feature Set Backup software features should go further than standard copying of data files; backup software should be lithe sufficient to meet your needs. First-rate data backup software allows you to schedule both full and tradition backups; backup merely what you want and when you want. 1-Ease of Use A computer beginner is supposed to be able to install and use the backup software without help. The control panel should be intuitive, convenient and should offer easy backup scheduling for automatic backups. Some backup programs are designed for advanced computer users, not novices; we remark on this in the backup software reviews. Data Backup Software Buying Review of 2-Backup and Restore Your backup should be simple to set up and easy to restore. Access restore data should be automatic, and the backup should preserve original data files and path. Restore backup files that dont preserve original file organization are almost valueless; youll have to reorganize all your restored data to access it expediently. Consider self-checking backup software that compares the backup to the original to verify correctness (backup confirmation). Look for backup software with a variety of backup choices: full, incremental, differential and individual file backups. A complete system backup (Image Backup) is also a precious asset, as is the ability to create a walking boot disk. Also, consider backup software that can compress data for compact storage. If security is a cause, choose backup software that protect with passwords and encryption. 3-Help Documentation Backing up and restore your data can be complex. Help files should offer plain, step-by-step instructions and troubleshooting tips. The language should be simple to understand and the help information should be well organized so you can find answers fast. Whether its corrupted data, viruses, or your computer just calls it quits, with the right data backup software, you have got it covered. Advanced Features Backup Password protection Backup software can use to add a password to your backup so you can delimit access. Backup Password Encryption Backup software encrypts your password so it cant be cut or accessed by power. Data Compression Backup software can use to compress the backup file so you can store more data in the same location. File Filtering Backup software will can use to include and keep out certain files or file types from your backup. Backup Verification After the software performs a data backup, it compares and verifies the backup to the original as a self error check. Drive Spanning Backup software can using to use multiple CD/DVD drives or hard drives for unattended backups. Event Logs Reports Catalog Backups Backup software runs an error-check to reveal if the backup and restore were successful. If there were errors during backup, the software stores them for easy reference (useful for troubleshooting and for avoiding similar hang-ups in the future). Burning Software Included Backup software includes the burning software necessary to create backups to blank CDs or DVDs. CD/DVD Erase Capability Backup software has a feature that allows you to erase rewritable CDs and DVDs. Create Bootable Backup Backup software can make your backup bootable. Usually this tool is available in backup software that creates drive images and disaster recovery disks (a backup of the system in case of a crash). Backup Capabilities Individual File Backup The software backs up just the individual files you select. Files-in-use Backup The software can backup files that are in use. This characteristic is useful to any person who requires several backups every day. Individual Folder Backup The backup software backs up not just the data, but files the locations and all the folders. Without this stooge, reorganize data after restoring would be not easy. Complete System Backup (picture Backup) (Also called Image Backup, Backup Image, Hard Drive Image and Drive Image) Backs up the all hard drive, including the operating system, registry, drivers, and data files-in short and software applications, your entire computer system. One-Click Drive Backup A convenient tool that makes a full system backup with one push button click. Address Book Backup Can using to backup all the names and email addresses stored in your email address books. Registry Backup Backup software can using to backup all your registry setting and files only, without backing up the rest of your computer system. Favorites Backup Backup software allows you to backup all your Internet favorites, including favorite website addresses and look for engine keywords. Backup Scheduling Backup software can using to create a backup table-perfect for busy people who dont have time to backup on a regular basis. Typically, data backup software can use to schedule backups at various intervals, including: during the boot up or shut down, hourly, every day, every week, every month or even yearly. Backup software Backup software is a computer program used to perform a full backup of the file, data, and the database system or server. Backup software enables the user to make an exact copy of everything in the original source. We must also use this program for the implementation of the process of restoring data or system in the event of a disaster. Why do I Need Backup Software? Why not just copy the files of interest to a blank CD and store it in a safe place? There is a good chance irritation factor to do so again and again and will lead to the neglect of the user to do this often as it should. The backup program makes a good base the whole process a little less annoying than it would be otherwise. How? List of features you can expect to find in any decent backup software Data compression. Any backup software worth its salt be able to compress your data does not take up too much space on the storage media the final. The savings can be significant. Some packages even allow you to change the values of pressure. In general, high rates of compression means the backup will take more time to implement that, if it is possible to change the compression settings, you can decide for yourself what time your favorite compression trade-off. Encryption. It should be the backup program allows you to encrypt your data. Some can be personal or commercially sensitive. Whether youre a backup to an external storage device, or elsewhere on the network, when you create a copy of your data you increase the chances of it falling into the wrong hands. Encryption is necessary to make it safe. Should be able to implement additional backup operations, and this means that actually only supported files that have changed up. Without this feature and you have to sort the files manually from the old and new, or just copy everything Every time you did a backup, and of course eating a great deal of time as it has done so.    Scheduling. Almost all backup programs will allow you to set timetables in advance. In this way, the backup can be done automatically at the time that suits you.    Dealing with open files. If you are working with important data on the computer constantly and we want to be backed up data as it is vital to change.    Control the use and CPU. You can copy the backup of the data in some cases, the processor-intensive; interfere with other tasks that you want to execute on your computer. Some backup programs allow you to throttle that will make demands on the resources of the CPU, allowing you to get your work is performed while the backup process unobtrusively in the background. Backup data Backup Data is information that is not presently in use by an organization and is routinely stored separately on portable media, to free up space and permit data recovery in the event of a disaster. To see the backup data, you have to reload it onto a computer from whatever storage media it is on. Why Do I Need to Backup My Data? The importance of data backup well, after five years of providing technical support for a variety of packages and accounting, one thing Ive found that is sure to bring tears to call the support person is the question: How was the last backup of the data good? Backup and data corruption occurs    It is important that users understand that corruption happens, hard drives will fail, motherboards and short out, and errors will erase the data. Have good maintenance and technical skills to increase the time between errors, but in the end, Murphy always wins, you will need to backup your data. Backup solutions for data available    What is important to emphasize that the presence of Data Backup normal does not need to be painful or expensive. Modern technology has brought the hard drive is very large, Zip and Jazz, DVD and CD burning, data backup tape systems within the reach of even a modest budget. Although the question of which of these items are suitable to your needs and data backup budget will depend on your circumstances, but the general need for data backup is not. The real cost of the lack of backup data    Almost as important as admitting that can happen to you, is to recognize the cost of data loss. Most people do not realize how much they have invested in the data on your hard drive. Forget the obvious stuff such as financial statements (receivables, payables, and tax information), which we know would be disastrous to lose. I think instead of hours of work re-install the program on the computer base and the restructuring of your environment to suit your preferences again. Backup documentation In computers, software and product development, documentation and information that describes the product to its users. It consists of evidence of technical products and information over the Internet (including electronic versions of technical manuals and descriptions of the annex to help). The term is sometimes used to denote the source of information about the product contained in design documents and detailed comments on the code, white papers, and notes the session of the board. The term is derived from the idea that engineers and programmers document their products in formal writing. The nearest computer users in some cases, simply handed engineers or programmers documents. The public as output grew, it became necessary to add the professional writers and editors of this process. Today, IBM and other companies to consider the development of information product based on what users need to do when you actually use the product. In this view of task-oriented, information can be divided into the product and sometimes physically organized in these categories task: assessing and planning for the establishment or installation, and air conditioning and management, using, and maintaining the product. Now documents are often built directly into the product as part of the user interface and help pages. Type of documents Stages of drawing out the above approaches and usually produces different types of documents dealing with different tasks and the possibly different target groups. These types of documents, in the case of CLWG, the following: Formal guidelines (specifications) for the area concerned (from the inventory and first proposals phase). Operational guidelines for the practical application of the specifications (from the inventory and first proposals phase). Consensus reports: surveys, descriptions of best practice and first proposals (from the survey phase). Reports on validation exercises (from the validation phase). Conclusion As discussed previously in this project, data can be lost in innumerable ways. In order to stave off such loss, its important to have a good backup strategy. Simple Backup Suite (backups) can be part of such an effort. Also, I discussed backup software, Backup software is a computer program used to perform a full backup of the file, data, and the database system or server. And I discussed backup data, Backup Data is information that not presently in use by an organization and is routinely stored separately on portable media, to free up space and permit data recovery in the event of a disaster. In finally I discussed backup damnation, in computers, software and product development, documentation and information that describes the product to its users. It consists of evidence of technical products and information over the Internet (including electronic versions of technical manuals and descriptions of the annex to help). I should every person using computer use backup for stored your d ata or information so as not loss your data or information.

dracula summary Essay -- essays research papers

Chapters 13-15 Summary John Seward's diary continues the story, describing how Lucy Westenra and her mother are buried together. Before the funeral, Van Helsing covers the coffin and body with garlic and places a crucifix in Lucy's mouth. He tells a confused Seward that, after the funeral, they must cut off the corpse's head and stuff her mouth with garlic. The next day, however, Van Helsing learns that someone has stolen the crucifix from the body, and he tells Seward that they have to wait before doing anything. Arthur Holmwood (Lord Godalming since his father's death) is heartbroken and turns to Seward for consolation. Looking at Lucy's corpse, he cannot believe that she is really dead. Van Helsing asks Arthur for Lucy's personal papers, hoping that they will give some clue as to the cause of her death. Meanwhile, Mina Murray's diary describes how she and Jonathan Harker are together in London when he sees a tall, fierce man with a black mustache and beard. Jonathan is convinced that it is Count Dracula, grown young and come to England, but he becomes so upset that he slips into a sleep and remembers nothing when he wakes. Mina decides that she must read his Transylvanian diary, for the sake of his health. That night, a telegram informs Mina of Lucy's death. An excerpt from a local paper follows, describing how a number of children have been temporarily abducted in Hampstead Heath (the area where Lucy was buried) by a strange woman whom the children call "the Bloof...

Capital Punishment is Murder Essays -- Against Death Penalty Essays

American history is replete with examples of brutality and foolishness that will forever blot the American conscience. Early in this century, Sacco and Vanzetti were railroaded for a murder of which they were almost certainly innocent. The trial was a farce, and the verdict was a more a result of bias against Italians than of the evidence. Their lives were forfeit. Later in the century, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were tried for conspiracy to commit espionage. Despite questionable evidence and even more questionable conduct on the part of prosecuting attorneys and government agencies, they were convicted; the verdict was a statement of public hysteria and fear of Communism. They too met the executioner. Not yet ingrained in the annals of history, in the past months the state of Texas executed a man who even the state admitted had not pulled the trigger, but was only an accomplice. If the recent elections prove anything, it is that these examples of the state-sanctioned murders of inno cents have done nothing to change the American mind. Many Republicans ran and won on a "law and order" platform; in New York, Governor George Pataki defeated former Governor Mario Cuomo largely on the basis of Cuomo's opposition to capital punishment. This article is an appeal to readers' morality, to their consciences. It does attempt to show that the death penalty is costly and impractical (though it is), or that it is unconstitutional (which it may well be). The article is an appeal for mercy. Perhaps the greatest problem with the death penalty, as the cases of the Rosenbergs and of Sacco and Vanzetti point out, is the chance for error incurred in capital cases. A study conducted at Stanford University found that, since 1900, more than fifty pe... ...run by criminals unless the criminals are all destroyed: it is a war of us against them and we must use whatever means are necessary to fight against them. Even more moderate advocates of capital punishment tend to hold to a black-and-white morality that justifies the brutality of capital punishment as a necessary act of self- protection. However, before giving in to fear of crime and justifying the deaths of innocents that inevitably result from the institution of capital punishment, we should remember that one of the few things that distinguishes human from animal is the capacity for mercy. Even if we could be absolutely certain of a person's guilt, by killing him or her do we not make murderers of ourselves. Darrow reminds us exactly what it means for society to abandon its mercy: "I would hate to live in a state that I didn't think was better than a murderer."

Internet Plagiarism :: Online Plagiarism

Internet Plagiarism "I am an Evil House of Cheat subscriber. Ever since I've had access to your service my grade in English 102 has gone from an 'F' to a 'B.' I use the cheathouse for other classes too, like Philosophy and history. Thank you for saving my butt— A happy anonymous user." Testimonials trumpet across Evil House of Cheat's Web site (cheathouse.com), gushing praise for this racket, which lets online clients download their pick of more than 1000 previously written term papers for free. "Super Users" who ante up $19.95 a year get full clearance to an additional 1000-plus essays locked into the site's database. Evil House of Cheat is among the 100 or more Web sites currently found on the Internet that allow students to download archived or custom-written papers. Some students cut and paste portions of these to create an entirely new document. Term paper mills run somewhat like co-ops and typically solicit essays from students, who post their work, bibliographies and citations included, at no charge. Commercial sites, on the other hand, jettison any association with their term paper ­mill country cousins by calling themselves "research companies" and often supplement student submissions by hiring professional writers to pen tailor-made term papers for clients. Price tags for these "reference materials" can range from about $27.50 to $1000 an essay. As clever as it may sound, plagiarizing via the Internet is a fresh riff on the traditional practice of fraternities and sororities offering members term paper files to sift through by subject or instructor. But now, teachers who may have previously cross-examined suspicious students by asking them to orally dissect their term paper's argument are now funneling college and university funds toward Internet-based antiplagiarism services and software. This means instructors and students are wielding the same weapon, the World Wide Web, in this cyber brouhaha. For teachers, a grudging reliance on technology coexists with the reality that some students are genuinely unaware that information must be attributed when it is culled from a clearinghouse like the Internet— just as when it is taken from a newspaper or an encyclopedia. The boundaries between research and cheating are becoming increasingly ambiguous. "One time I was teaching a summer version of my class and a student turned in bits and pieces of information on Captain Ahab that she had downloaded off, I kid you not, schoolsucks.com [a term paper mill].

Forward the Foundation Chapter 6

15 Cleon was no longer quite the handsome young monarch that his holographs portrayed. Perhaps he still was-in the holographs-but his mirror told a different story. His most recent birthday had been celebrated with the usual pomp and ritual, but it was his fortieth just the same. The Emperor could find nothing wrong with being forty. His health was perfect. He had gained a little weight but not much. His face would perhaps look older, if it were not for the microadjustments that were made periodically and that gave him a slightly enameled look. He had been on the throne for eighteen years-already one of the longer reigns of the century-and he felt there was nothing that might necessarily keep him from reigning another forty years and perhaps having the longest reign in Imperial history as a result. Cleon looked at the mirror again and thought he looked a bit better if he did not actualize the third dimension. Now take Demerzel-faithful, reliable, necessary, unbearable Demerzel. No change in him. He maintained his appearance and, as far as Cleon knew, there had been no microadjustments, either. Of course, Demerzel was so close-mouthed about everything. And he had never been young. There had been no young look about him when he first served Cleon's father and Cleon had been the boyish Prince Imperial. And there was no young look about him now. Was it better to have looked old at the start and to avoid change afterward? Change! It reminded him that he had called Demerzel in for a purpose and not just so that he might stand there while the Emperor ruminated. Demerzel would take too much Imperial rumination as a sign of old age. â€Å"Demerzel,† he said. â€Å"Sire?† â€Å"This fellow Joranum. I tire of hearing of him.† â€Å"There is no reason you should hear of him, Sire. He is one of those phenomena that are thrown to the surface of the news for a while and then disappears.† â€Å"But he doesn't disappear.† â€Å"Sometimes it takes a while, Sire.† â€Å"What do you think of him, Demerzel?† â€Å"He is dangerous but has a certain popularity. It is the popularity that increases the danger.† â€Å"If you find him dangerous and if I find him annoying, why must we wait? Can't he simply be imprisoned or executed or something?† â€Å"The political situation on Trantor, Sire, is delicate-â€Å" â€Å"It is always delicate. When have you told me that it is anything but delicate?† â€Å"We live in delicate times, Sire. It would be useless to move strongly against him if that would but exacerbate the danger.† â€Å"I don't like it. I may not be widely read-an Emperor doesn't have the time to be widely read-but I know my Imperial history, at any rate. There have been a number of cases of these populists, as they are called, that have seized power in the last couple of centuries. In every case, they reduced the reigning Emperor to a mere figurehead. I do not wish to be a figurehead, Demerzel.† â€Å"It is unthinkable that you would be, Sire.† â€Å"It won't be unthinkable if you do nothing.† â€Å"I am attempting to take measures, Sire, but cautious ones.† â€Å"There's one fellow, at least, who isn't cautious. A month or so ago, a University professor-a professor-stopped a potential Joranumite riot single-handedly. He stepped right in and put a stop to it.† â€Å"So he did, Sire. How did you come to hear of it?† â€Å"Because he is a certain professor in whom I am interested. How is it that you didn't speak to me of this?† Demerzel said, almost obsequiously, â€Å"Would it be right for me to trouble you with every insignificant detail that crosses my desk?† â€Å"Insignificant? This man who took action was Hari Seldon.† â€Å"That was, indeed, his name.† â€Å"And the name was a familiar one. Did he not present a paper, some years ago, at the last Decennial Convention that interested us?† â€Å"Yes, Sire.† Cleon looked pleased. â€Å"As you see, I do have a memory. I need not depend on my staff for everything. I interviewed this Seldon fellow on the matter of his paper, did I not?† â€Å"Your memory is indeed flawless, Sire.† â€Å"What happened to his idea? It was a fortune-telling device. My flawless memory does not bring to mind what he called it.† â€Å"Psychohistory, Sire. It was not precisely a fortune-telling device but a theory as to ways of predicting general trends in future human history.† â€Å"And what happened to it?† â€Å"Nothing, Sire. As I explained at the time, the idea turned out to be wholly impractical. It was a colorful idea but a useless one.† â€Å"Yet he is capable of taking action to stop a potential riot. Would he have dared do this if he didn't know in advance he would succeed? Isn't that evidence that this-what?-psychohistory is working?† â€Å"It is merely evidence that Hari Seldon is foolhardy, Sire. Even if the psychohistoric theory were practical, it would not have been able to yield results involving a single person or a single action.† â€Å"You're not the mathematician, Demerzel. He is. I think it is time I questioned him again. After all, it is not long before the Decennial Convention is upon us once more.† â€Å"It would be a useless-â€Å" â€Å"Demerzel, I desire it. See to it.† â€Å"Yes, Sire.† 16 Raych was listening with an agonized impatience that he was trying not to show. He was sitting in an improvised cell, deep in the warrens of Billibotton, having been accompanied through alleys he no longer remembered. (He, who in the old days could have threaded those same alleys unerringly and lost any pursuer.) The man with him, clad in the green of the Joranumite Guard, was either a missionary, a brainwasher, or a kind of theologian-manque. At any rate, he had announced his name to be Sander Nee and he was delivering a long message in a thick Dahlite accent that he had clearly learned by heart. â€Å"If the people of Dahl want to enjoy equality, they must show themselves worthy of it. Good rule, quiet behavior, seemly pleasures are all requirements. Aggressiveness and the bearing of knives are the accusations others make against us to justify their intolerance. We must be clean in word and-â€Å" Raych broke in. â€Å"I agree with you, Guardsman Nee, every word. But I must see Mr. Joranum.† Slowly the guardsman shook his head. â€Å"You can't ‘less you got some appointment, some permission.† â€Å"Look, I'm the son of an important professor at Streeling University, a mathematics professor.† â€Å"Don't know no professor. I thought you said you was from Dahl.† â€Å"Of course I am. Can't you tell the way I talk?† â€Å"And you got an old man who's a professor at a big University? That don't sound likely.† â€Å"Well, he's my foster father.† The guardsman absorbed that and shook his head. â€Å"You know anyone in Dahl?† â€Å"There's Mother Rittah. She'll know me.† (She had been very old when she had known him. She might be senile by now-or dead.) â€Å"Never heard of her.† (Who else? He had never known anyone likely to penetrate the dim consciousness of this man facing him. His best friend had been another youngster named Smoodgie-or at least that was the only name he knew him by. Even in his desperation, Raych could not see himself saying: â€Å"Do you know someone my age named Smoodgie?†) Finally he said, â€Å"There's Yugo Amaryl.† A dim spark seemed to light Nee's eyes. â€Å"Who?† â€Å"Yugo Amaryl,† said Raych eagerly. â€Å"He works for my foster father at the University.† â€Å"He a Dahlite, too? Everyone at the University Dahlites?† â€Å"Just he and I. He was a heatsinker.† â€Å"What's he doing at the University?† â€Å"My father took him out of the heatsinks eight years ago.† â€Å"Well-I'll send someone.† Raych had to wait. Even if he escaped, where would he go in the intricate alleyways of Billibotton without being picked up instantly? Twenty minutes passed before Nee returned with the corporal who had arrested Raych in the first place. Raych felt a little hope; the corporal, at least, might conceivably have some brains. The corporal said, â€Å"Who is this Dahlite you know?† â€Å"Yugo Amaryl, Corporal, a heatsinker who my father found here in Dahl eight years ago and took to Streeling University with him.† â€Å"Why did he do that?† â€Å"My father thought Yugo could do more important things than heatsink, Corporal.† â€Å"Like what?† â€Å"Mathematics. He-â€Å" The corporal held up his hand. â€Å"What heatsink did he work in?† Raych thought for a moment. â€Å"I was only a kid then, but it was at C-2, I think.† â€Å"Close enough. C-3.† â€Å"Then you know about him, Corporal?† â€Å"Not personally, but the story is famous in the heatsinks and I've worked there, too. And maybe that's how you've heard of it. Have you any evidence that you really know Yugo Amaryl?† â€Å"Look. Let me tell you what I'd like to do. I'm going to write down my name on a piece of paper and my father's name. Then I'm going to write down one word. Get in touch-any way you want-with some official in Mr. Joranum's group-Mr. Joranum will be here in Dahl tomorrow-and just read him my name, my father's name, and the one word. If nothing happens, then I'll stay here till I rot, I suppose, but I don't think that will happen. In fact, I'm sure that they will get me out of here in three seconds and that you'll get a promotion for passing along the information. If you refuse to do this, when they find out I am here-and they will-you will be in the deepest possible trouble. After all, if you know that Yugo Amaryl went off with a big-shot mathematician, just tell yourself that same big-shot mathematician is my father. His name is Hari Seldon.† The corporal's face showed clearly that the name was not unknown to him. He said, â€Å"What's the one word you're going to write down?† â€Å"Psychohistory.† The corporal frowned. â€Å"What's that?† â€Å"That doesn't matter. Just pass it along and see what happens.† The corporal handed him a small sheet of paper, torn out of a notebook. â€Å"All right. Write it down and we'll see what happens.† Raych realized that he was trembling. He wanted very much to know what would happen. It depended entirely on who it was that the corporal would talk to and what magic the word would carry with it. 17 Hari Seldon watched the raindrops form on the wraparound windows of the Imperial ground-car and a sense of nostalgia stabbed at him unbearably. It was only the second time in his eight years on Trantor that he had been ordered to visit the Emperor in the only open land on the planet-and both times the weather had been bad. The first time, shortly after he had arrived on Trantor, the bad weather had merely irritated him. He had found no novelty in it. His home world of Helicon had its share of storms, after all, particularly in the area where he had been brought up. But now he had lived for eight years in make-believe weather, in which storms consisted of computerized cloudiness at random intervals, with regular light rains during the sleeping hours. Raging winds were replaced by zephyrs and there were no extremes of heat and cold-merely little changes that made you unzip the front of your shirt once in a while or throw on a light jacket. And he had heard complaints about even so mild a deviation. But now Hari was seeing real rain coming down drearily from a cold sky-and he had not seen such a thing in years-and he loved it; that was the thing. It reminded him of Helicon, of his youth, of relatively carefree days, and he wondered if he might persuade the driver to take the long way to the Palace. Impossible! The Emperor wanted to see him and it was a long enough trip by ground-car, even if one went in a straight line with no interfering traffic. The Emperor, of course, would not wait. It was a different Cleon from the one Seldon had seen eight years before. He had put on about ten pounds and there was a sulkiness about his face. Yet the skin around his eyes and cheeks looked pinched and Hari recognized the results of one too many microadjustments. In a way, Seldon felt sorry for Cleon-for all his might and Imperial sway, the Emperor was powerless against the passage of time. Once again Cleon met Hari Seldon alone-in the same lavishly furnished room of their first encounter. As was the custom, Seldon waited to be addressed. After briefly assessing Seldon's appearance, the Emperor said in an ordinary voice, â€Å"Glad to see you, Professor. Let us dispense with formalities, as we did on the former occasion on which I met you.† â€Å"Yes, Sire,† said Seldon stiffly. It was not always safe to be informal, merely because the Emperor ordered you to be so in an effusive moment. Cleon gestured imperceptibly and at once the room came alive with automation as the table set itself and dishes began to appear. Seldon, confused, could not follow the details. The Emperor said casually, â€Å"You will dine with me, Seldon?† It had the formal intonation of a question but the force, somehow, of an order. â€Å"I would be honored, Sire,† said Seldon. He looked around cautiously. He knew very well that one did not (or, at any rate, should not) ask questions of the Emperor, but he saw no way out of it. He said, rather quietly, trying to make it not sound like a question, â€Å"The First Minister will not dine with us?† â€Å"He will not,† said Cleon. â€Å"He has other tasks at this moment and I wish, in any case, to speak to you privately.† They ate quietly for a while, Cleon gazing at him fixedly and Seldon smiling tentatively. Cleon had no reputation for cruelty or even for irresponsibility, but he could, in theory, have Seldon arrested on some vague charge and, if the Emperor wished to exert his influence, the case might never come to trial. It was always best to avoid notice and at the moment Seldon couldn't manage it. Surely it had been worse eight years ago, when he had been brought to the Palace under armed guard. This fact did not make Seldon feel relieved, however. Then Cleon spoke. â€Å"Seldon† he said. â€Å"The First Minister is of great use to me, yet I feel that, at times, people may think I do not have a mind of my own. Do you think that?† â€Å"Never, Sire,† said Seldon calmly. No use protesting too much. â€Å"I don't believe you. However, I do have a mind of my own and I recall that when you first came to Trantor you had this psychohistory thing you were playing with.† â€Å"I'm sure you also remember, Sire,† said Seldon softly, â€Å"that I explained at the time it was a mathematical theory without practical application.† â€Å"So you said. Do you still say so?† â€Å"Yes, Sire.† â€Å"Have you been working on it since?† â€Å"On occasion I toy with it, but it comes to nothing. Chaos unfortunately interferes and predictability is not-â€Å" The Emperor interrupted. â€Å"There is a specific problem I wish you to tackle. Do help yourself to the dessert, Seldon. It is very good.† â€Å"What is the problem, Sire?† â€Å"This man Joranum. Demerzel tells me-oh, so politely-that I cannot arrest this man and I cannot use armed force to crush his followers. He says it will simply make the situation worse.† â€Å"If the First Minister says so, I presume it is so.† â€Å"But I do not want this man Joranum†¦ At any rate, I will not be his puppet. Demerzel does nothing.† â€Å"I am sure that he is doing what he can, Sire.† â€Å"If he is working to alleviate the problem, he certainly is not keeping me informed.† â€Å"That may be, Sire, out of a natural desire to keep you above the fray. The First Minister may feel that if Joranum should-if he should-â€Å" â€Å"Take over,† said Cleon with a tone of infinite distaste. â€Å"Yes, Sire. It would not be wise to have it appear that you were personally opposed to him. You must remain untouched for the sake of the stability of the Empire.† â€Å"I would much rather assure the stability of the Empire without Joranum. What do you suggest, Seldon?† â€Å"I, Sire?† â€Å"You, Seldon,† said Cleon impatiently. â€Å"Let me say that I don't believe you when you say that psychohistory is just a game. Demerzel stays friendly with you. Do you think I am such an idiot as not to know that? He expects something from you. He expects psychohistory from you and since I am no fool, I expect it, too. Seldon, are you for Joranum? The truth!† â€Å"No, Sire, I am not for him. I consider him an utter danger to the Empire.† â€Å"Very well, I believe you. You stopped a potential Joranumite riot at your University grounds single-handedly, I understand.† â€Å"It was pure impulse on my part, Sire.† â€Å"Tell that to fools, not to me. You had worked it out by psychohistory.† â€Å"Sire!† â€Å"Don't protest. What are you doing about Joranum? You must be doing something if you are on the side of the Empire.† â€Å"Sire,† said Seldon cautiously, uncertain as to how much the Emperor knew. â€Å"I have sent my son to meet with Joranum in the Dahl Sector.† â€Å"Why?† â€Å"My son is a Dahlite-and shrewd. He may discover something of use to us.† â€Å"May?† â€Å"Only may, Sire.† â€Å"You'll keep me informed?† â€Å"Yes, Sire.† â€Å"And, Seldon, do not tell me that psychohistory is just a game, that it does not exist. I do not want to hear that. I expect you to do something about Joranum. What it might be, I can't say, but you must do something. I will not have it otherwise. You may go.† Seldon returned to Streeling University in a far darker mood than when he had left. Cleon had sounded as though he would not accept failure. It all depended on Raych now.

Literature Review on Autism Spectrum Disorders Essay

Abstract Autism has become an increasing subject of interest, especially to researchers and medical professionals. This increase in interest is most likely due to the fact that autism is becoming an increasing problem in children, with the number of diagnoses doubling in just a four year period. In order to discover what may cause this disorder as well as finding effective ways to treat it, people must be informed and knowledgeable about autism. The current study discusses what ASD is, symptoms of this disorder, possible causes and risk factors, and methods of treatments and therapy, such as early intervention and sensory integration therapy. This study hypothesizes that sensory integration therapy will significantly improve grades and school performance in children with autism. Recently, it seems as if autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been receiving a great deal of attention by those who work in the medical field, researchers, education providers, and parents as well. This is due to the fact that the number of diagnoses has increased significantly. In just a four year period, the number of recorded diagnoses for these types of disorders has doubled (Keen & Ward, 2004). This substantial increase in the diagnoses of ASDs could be due to the fact that doctors and other health professionals are becoming more aware of the criteria for these disorders, and are beginning to have greater recognition of ASD in more able, high functioning children. In the past, there have been several cases where high functioning children were first diagnosed with ADHD, and later received an ASD diagnoses (Keen & Ward, 2004). With the recent awareness of autism spectrum disorders, a more clear criteria has developed for the diagnoses of these disorders. In broad terms, autism spectrum disorders is a group of developmental brain disorders, collectively called ASD. It is called autism spectrum disorder because the symptoms and levels of impairment for these disorders ranges  widely in each individual with an ASD. (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2011). In fact, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2011), some higher functioning children may only be mildly impaired by his or hers symptoms, while other children who are low functioning may have more severely impaired by his or hers symptoms, causing them to be severely disabled. To diagnose an individual with ASD, one must meet the criteria listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition – Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Currently, there are five defined disorders that fall under the category of ASD. These disorders include autistic disorder (classic autism), Asperger’s disorder (Asperger’s syndrome), pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), Rett’s disorder (Rett’s syndrome), and childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) (NIMH, 2011). However, this review will focus mostly on the more common disorders, classic autism and Asperger’s syndrome. The NIMH (2011) has identified some key symptoms seen in individuals with ASD. While symptoms do vary from one child to the next, the symptoms tend to fall into three main areas. These three areas include social impairment, communication difficulties, and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors. Children with autism have trouble with social interactions and find it difficult to engage in everyday social interactions. Some of these problems with social interactions may include having trouble with making eye contact, have trouble listening to and responding to other people in their environment, and having trouble picking up on social cues and reading peoples emotions. Children with ASD may respond unusually or inappropriately when others show feelings of anger, sadness, distress, or affection (Kamps, Leonard, Vernon, Dugan, & Delquadri, 1992). Children with autism also suffer from several communication issues, such as failing or being slow to respond to verbal attempts to get their attention, developing language at a slower pace than others, repeating words or phrases that they hear, and using words that are strange or out of place, that do not really make sense to people other than the child and those close to the child whom are familiar with the child’s communication style. The last important symptom seen in children  with ASD is repetitive and stereotyped behavior. Many children with ASD tend to have odd, repetitive actions and behaviors that may be referred to as stereotyped behaviors. An example of a stereotyped behavior might be a simple gesture of the arm that is repeatedly done by the child. Children with autism often have one subject or interest that they tend to overly focus on. They tend to become obsessed with one particular subject, and will learn everything they can about the subject of interest. Because autistic children seem to display several repetitive behaviors and thoughts, a set routine is usually the best environment for a child with ASD (NIMH, 2011). While there have been many theories and suggestions of what may cause autism spectrum disorders, there is not one particular known cause of these disorders. A great deal of research has been done to examine possible causes of and risk factors for this disorder. Recently, there has been research on the hypotheses that maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels may have some correlation with being at risk of having a child with ASD. Ascherio, Lyall, Pauls, Santangelo, and Spiegelman (2011) conducted a study to see if they could find any relationships between certain maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels and the risk of having a child with an ASD. This study focuses on maternal early life factors, and how some of these reproductive and hormonal factors of mothers could put them at risk of having a child with ASD (Ascherio, Lyall, Pauls, Santangelo, & Spiegelman, 2011). The methods of this study included a cohort study with 61,596 women. Data was collected from these women, which included age of menarche (first menstrual cycle), characteristics of menstrual cycle during adolescence, use of birth control, specifically oral contraceptives, prior to have given birth, body shape, and body mass index (BMI). The results of this study showed relationships between higher BMI’s at age 18, early age at menarche, and longer use of oral contraceptives prior to first birth, and being at risk for having a child with ASD (Ascherio et al., 2011). Other risk factors for having a child with an ASD that have been studied include prenatal, or the period of time before the child is born, perinatal, or the period of delivery and immediately before and after delivery, and parental, or characteristics of the parents, factors. In a study done by  Hertz-Piccottio et al. (2010), the authors examine possible parental, prenatal and perinatal factors associated with ASD. The methods of this study was a case-control study, using a cohort of children in China. Cases came from six special education schools and two Preschool Autistic Children Special Education Institutions in Tianjin, China (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010). The parental risk factors that were studied included parental ages at delivery, ethnicity, occupation, education, marriage of a close relative, exposure to toxins, personality, and family medical history of different illnesses (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). The prenatal risk factors that were examined in this study included maternal characteristics and behaviors during pregnancy, alcohol consumption, smoking and second hand smoke exposure, exposure to X-rays, attempt to terminate pregnancy, contact with toxins, emotional state, disease history, and medication history (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). Some perinatal factors that were examined include infant gestational age at birth, fetal nuchal chord (umbilical chord wrapped around neck), cesarean delivery, and breech birth. Also included were newborn complications such as birth weight, delayed crying, and abnormal skin color due to an array of conditions such a hypoxia, apnoea, neonatal jaundice, and several other conditions (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). The results of this study showed relationships between several of the factors examined and the risk of having a child with ASD. In relation to the prenatal risk factors studied, seven conditions during gestation were significantly associated with the risk of having a child with ASD, four of which showed the strongest relationship. The four prenatal risk factors that showed the strongest relationship included frequent maternal second-hand smoke exposure, chronic and acute medical conditions unrelated to pregnancy, maternal unhappy emotional state, and one or more gestational complications (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). For the perinatal risk factors that were studied, seven characteristics at the time of delivery were significantly associated with autism. These characteristics include abnormal gestational age, including preterm and post-term, nuchal chord, cesarean delivery, delayed crying, newborn complications, apnoea, and neonatal jaundice (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). For the parental characteristics studied, results showed that gravidity > 1 and advanced paternal age at delivery were  significantly associated with autism (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). Other studies have also done research on possible perinatal, prenatal, and parental risk factors for autism. In a study done by Agerbo et al. (2005), the authors created a study in Denmark of children with ASD. This study focused on possible perinatal risk factors for autism, as well as the associations between parental psychiatric history and socioeconomic status and the risk of having a child with autism. The following perinatal factors were investigated in this study: birth weight, gestational at birth, weight for gestational age, birth weight, Apgar score at 5 minutes, fetal presentation, mode of delivery, pregnancy characteristics such as multiple gestation, and parental characteristics such as maternal smoking, maternal and paternal ages, maternal citizenship, and number of previous pregnancies. Other factors considered were parental psychiatric history, that is, if the parent had been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder prior to the date the child was diagnosed with autism, and socioeconomic factors, including maternal education and parental wealth (Agerbo et al., 2005). As we begin to understand more about what exactly autism spectrum disorders are, what may cause these disorders, and how to diagnose children more accurately and sooner, the next step in being proactive with ASD is studying different treatment methods and developing new methods of treatment that may be more effective. The biggest impairment for most children with ASD is the social impairments caused by these disorders. Developing treatments that may help children with an ASD learn how to better interact in social situations could possibly be the most useful type of treatment for these children. Researchers have been working on several different treatment methods for children with autism, especially treatments to help develop and improve social skills. In a study done by Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, and Frea (1992), the authors seek out to find a treatment to improve social skills in children with an ASD. This study assessed whether self-management could be used as a technique to improve extended responsiveness to verbal initiations from others, without the presence of a treatment provider. The methods of this study included four children, all of whom were diagnosed with autism.  The results of the study showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings (Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, & Frea, 1992). Another method of treatment that is being explored is the use of social robots for the therapy of children with ASD. In a study done by Werry, Dautenhahn, Ogden, and Harwin (2001) , the researchers developed a robotic agent that could help with therapy in children with autism. This study was called the AURORA project, which started in 1998. The results so far have been quite promising, and the social robot has proven to be a very useful tool for children with autism. It gives them the opportunity to practice social interactions and serves as a social mediator (Werry, Dautenhan, Ogden, & Harwin, 2001). The treatment of autism is not a simple process. There is no single therapy or method of treatment that can completely cure an individual with autism. However, there are an assortment of treatments and therapies that have proven to be effective in treating children with autism. Quite often, children with autism combine different treatment methods and therapies to improve different skills. Some of the more common approaches at treating autism in children include behavioral procedures, such as early intervention and discrete trial trainings, speech therapy, dietary approaches, and occupational therapy ( Watling, Deitz, Kanny, & McLaughlin, 1999). Early intervention, a behavioral analytic treatment for autism, is an intensive behavioral therapy that is started as soon as a child is diagnosed with autism, usually before age 5. This type of therapy is based on the principles of operant conditioning. In this type of treatment, therapists simplify children’s environment in order to maximize successes and minimize failures. For example, the therapist might break a behavior down into smaller units and teach each unit individually, eventually linking all of the units together, which may also be called chaining. Another method of simplification that a therapist may use is discrete trial format. Discrete trial format involves a one on one interaction with a therapist that is carefully planned out, in which the child receives short and clear instructions from the therapist, and is immediately reinforced for every  correct response. Another type of treatment for children with autism that is becoming more popular is occupational therapy. Occupational therapists are trained in teaching every day skills to help the individual being treated live as independently as possible. These skills can be very helpful to children with an ASD. One of the most well-known types of therapy occupational therapists use to help treat autism is sensory integration therapy. Those who practice this type of therapy hypothesize that the primary symptoms of autism are disturbances in sensory modulation. Consequently, children with autism have difficulties in social relating, communication, and language. Because children with autism have these disturbances in regulating sensory input appropriately, they suffer from several social and communication problems (Case-Smith & Bryan, 1999). The sensory integration approach attempts to stimulate and challenge the senses of the individual being treated (Cohn, 2001). A common symptom in individuals w ith autism is being either over stimulated under-stimulated by their environment. They often have trouble learning to combine and integrating their different senses. These sensory difficulties may be a cause of communication problems and social interaction problems in children with autism. Because they have such difficulty regulating their sensory systems, they tend to have trouble socializing and interacting with others. Some individuals with autism practice certain stereotyped behaviors, such as lining up toys or moving a toy back and forth on a table. This may be an attempt to try and regulate their sensory systems. The sensory integration approach aims to help children with autism improve their sensory processing and modulation. There are three elements typically included in this approach: helping parents better understand their child’s behavior, helping parents/teachers modify the child’s environment in order to meet his or hers sensory needs, and helping children organize responses to sensory input. However, each sensory integration therapy session is unique to the individual being treated. Occupational therapists must conside r different individuals’ unique needs and goals (Case-Smith & Bryan, 1999). Sensory integration therapy is the most used technique in occupational  therapy for the treatment of children with autism, with 95% of occupational therapists using this approach at least some of the time. The reason for its popularity in the treatment of autism is because of its proven efficacy in helping improve social interactions and communications. In a study done by Case-Smith and Bryan (1999) the authors found that sensory integration therapy can significantly increase mastery play, or the child’s interactions with the physical environment. They also found that sensory integration therapy significantly decreases non-engaged behaviors, or behaviors where the child is not interacting or minimally interacting with their environment. Examples of these behaviors include unfocused staring or aimless wandering. In a study by Cohn (2001), the author is concerned with parents’ perspectives of the sensory integration approach used in the treatment of their children. In t his study, the author found that sensory integration was successful in helping parents understand their children’s problems. While there is a great deal of research that has been done on the sensory integration approach as a treatment for children with autism and the efficacy of this treatment in improving certain social behaviors, there is not much literature on the effects of sensory integration therapy on grades and school performance of children with autism. In consideration to prior research in relation to autism and the treatment methods, the current study hypothesizes that sensory integration therapy will significantly improves grades and school performance in children with autism. Methods Participants Participants of this study will consist of young children with autism or another type of ASD, attending some type of day care or school for children with disabilities. Participants will be in the age group of 3 years old to 7 years old. There will be about 10-15 total participants. Materials This study will be a single-subject design, where each participant serves as his or hers own control group. The study will be conducted right after a break in school, such as winter break or summer break. When the students return from the break in school, they will attend school for three to four weeks without receiving any therapy or treatment. At the end of this period, grades will be assessed as well as general school performance such has  participation and behavior. After the three week period of no therapy, intervention will be initiated and children will all receive sensory integration therapy. Children will receive this therapy within the school for six to eight weeks. At the end of this intervention period, grades and school performance will be assessed again. Procedure The therapy sessions will take place in the day care or school building. Observations of the participants will be made in the classroom, both before the intervention period and during the intervention period. These observations will assess each child’s individual school performance, including things such as participation and class behaviors. Grades will also be assessed both before the intervention and during the intervention period. Students will return to school after their break and will not receive any therapy for three weeks. After the first three weeks, the intervention will be initiated and the children will each participate individually in a form of sensory integration therapy under the supervision of a trained occupational therapist. Each therapy session will be unique to the individual and his or hers unique needs or goals. At the end of the intervention period, grades will be assessed again. The grades and school performance of each child before the therapy was star ted will be compared with the grades and school performance assessed during and at the end of the therapy, using SPSS or some sort of statistical analysis program, to determine whether or not sensory integration therapy significantly improves grades and school performance in children with autism. References Agerbo, E., Eaton, W. W., Larsson, H. J., Madsen, K. M., Mortensen, P. B., Oleson, A. V., †¦Vestergaard, M. (2005). Risk factors for autism: Perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history, and socioeconomic status. American Journal of Epidemiology. 161(10), 916-925. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi123 Ascherio, A., Lyall, K., Pauls, D. L., Santangelo, S., & Spiegelman, D. (2011). Maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels and the risk of having a child with an autism spectrum disorder in the nurses health study II. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41, 618- 627. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1079-7 Case – Smith, J., & Bryan, T. (1999). The effects of occupational therapy with sensory integration emphasis on preschool-age children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 489 – 497. Cohn, E. S. (2001). Parent perspectives of occupational therapy using a sensory integration approach. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55, 285-294. Hertz- Picciotto, I., Lv, C. C., Miao, R. J., Qi, L., Tian, J., Xi, W., & Zhang, X. (2010) Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism in china. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1311-1321. doi: 10.1007/s10803-010-0992-0 Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B. R., Vernon, S., Dugan, E. P., Delquadri, J. C., Gershon, B.,†¦Folk, L. (1992). Journal of Applied and Behavior Analysis, 25 (2), 281-288. Keen, D. & Ward, S. (2004). Autistic spectrum disorder a child population profile. The National Autistic Society, 8 (1), 39-48. Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. (1992). Improving social skills and disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353. Smith, Tristram. (1999). Outcome of early intervention for children with autism. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice,6, (1), 33-49. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health. (2011). A parent’s guide to autism spectrum disorder (NIH Publication No. 11-5511). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/complete-index.shtml#pub6 Watling, R., Deitz, J., Kanny, E. M., & McLaughlin, J. F. (1999). Current practice of occupational therapy for children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 498–505. Werry, I., Dautenhahn, K., Ogden, B., & Harwin, W. (2001). Can social interaction skills be taught by a social agent? The role of a robotic mediator in autism therapy.